The ancient art of astrology began 5000 years ago, in ancient Mesopotamia where Babylonian and Sumerian observers (the earliest civilization in Mesopotamia) carefully tracked the movements of the sun, moon, stars, and wandering stars (the planets). They noticed recurring patterns and connected them to seasonal changes, weather, and events on Earth. To them, the stars and planets were messages from the Gods that would aid them in farming, predict floods, and inform the monarchy of important decisions. Over time, the Babylonians, the empire that ruled Mesopotamian region a few thousand years later, named the constellations and organized these observations into a system of divination.

Astrology Through the Ages

Astrology has a rich history that has evolved over time as it spread throughout the ancient world. Throughout much of history, astrology and astronomy were intertwined as a single field of study and practice. Here are the key periods and a summary of the advancements made during these eras.

Ancient Babylonia (2000–500 BC)

The Babylonians developed the first system of astrology, primarily focused on mundane astrology which relates to the governance and collective experience of a nation or state, but they also developed basic natal astrology. Using their well-established calendar system and omen-based form of celestial divination, astrology became more structured, with the naming of constellations and depictions of what each “wandering star” signifies in each sign. The original zodiac had 18 constellations and used a base of 20. Cuneiform texts dating back to 1000 BC have drawings of “The bull of heaven” Taurus, “The lesser twins”, Gemini, “The crab” Cancer and “The lion”, Leo. The first ephemerides were developed during this era, which allowed astrologers to easily identify the approximate positions of the planets for a future date. 

Hellenistic Era (300–30 BC)

Babylonian techniques continued to be practiced by the people of the Mediterranean and Western Asia, but changes to the system didn’t arise until the late Hellenistic period (the late 2^nd century BC). During this time, the Babylonian system was combined with Egyptian astrology, adopting the use of decans and their base of 12, which reduced the zodiac wheel to the 12 constellations we know today. The most important development during Hellenistic times was the introduction of the Ascendant based on the time of birth, with the advancement of mathematics. This is the origin of the horoscope, which translates to “hour marker” and the beginning of the use of the houses, where each planet had its home state and enemy state. Natal astrology techniques became much more structured, detailed, and complex as a result. So much so that many of the astrological techniques from this era are still used today, such as the major aspects (Ptolemaic aspects), dignities, debilities, and the interpretations of planetary combinations, which remain mostly unchanged. Horary, electional astrology, and the core “lots” (e.g. lot of fortune) also emerged during this era.

Ancient China (1000BC–2 AD)

It is still up for debate among historians whether the Chinese system of astrology originated from Babylonian concepts. Some argue that astrology emerged independently in China since celestial movements for prediction were not established until the Han Dynasty in the 2^nd Century BC onwards. Up until this point, the stars in the sky were used for timekeeping and agriculture only. Their system of astrology incorporated elements unique to their culture, such as Buddhist and Taoist beliefs, yin-yang and Wuxing (the five elements of Fire, Water, Wood, Metal, and Earth), which they associated with the five planets visible with the naked eye. 

Ancient India (100–200 AD onwards)

Similar to ancient China, historians are divided on whether India’s tradition of astrology emerged independently or not. In India, the tracking of celestial events was merged with local traditions and religion, resulting in Hindu Astrology (Jyotisha), which is commonly called Vedic Astrology today. There are distinct features of the system that were not used elsewhere at the time, such as the 28 Lunar Mansions (Naksatra). However, during the 2^nd Century CE, some Hellenistic ideas merged with Hindu Astrology, with texts such as the Yavanajataka “Sayings of the Greeks” introducing the ascendant, and the 12 houses.

Islamic Middle Ages (700–1400 AD)

 Much knowledge was lost during the fall of the Roman Empire. Libraries were burned, texts were lost, and the scholarly networks disintegrated over much of Europe. However, Islamic scholars carefully preserved and built upon astrological knowledge from antiquity, keeping the tradition alive and eventually reintroducing it to Europe. Their contributions include medical astrology, which related herbs and treatments to the planets, and the Arabic Parts, which expanded on the “Lots” used by Hellenistic astrologers. The scholars further advanced our knowledge of the stars, discovering new ones and drawing detailed maps of the sky, during the Islamic Golden Age of mathematics and science.

Renaissance Europe (1400–1600 AD)

Astrology thrived during the Renaissance. With an explosive growth in art, music, literature, and classical knowledge, astrology was revived and taught alongside astronomy in all major institutions. Much effort was put into increasing the accuracy of astrological prediction. The work of Copernicus, who placed the Sun at the center of the Universe, greatly simplified the calculation of planetary positions, and Johannes Kepler’s work on elliptical orbits improved the accuracy of ephemerides. Traditionally, only heads of state, elites, and wealthy individuals could afford astrologers’ services, but with the invention of the printing press, astrology became accessible to the masses. Yearly almanacs were extremely popular as the stars guided and influenced daily life. By the end of the 17th century, astrology began to lose credibility as a scientific area of study.

Modern Era (18th century–present)

 Astrology becomes a cultural phenomenon, with horoscopes and zodiac-based personality insights being printed in newspapers and magazines. Modern astrology is now largely focused on personal guidance and self-reflection rather than government decisions or predictions. People tend to look at horoscopes, birth charts, and zodiac sign interpretations to explore personality traits, relationships, and career paths, and to help navigate life challenges. Astrology, which is also now seen as a spiritual practice for some, attracts millions worldwide. The rise of the personal computer made astrology much more accessible than ever before. Where patrons had to previously consult an astrologer to obtain and understand their natal chart, free online calculators are now able to generate accurate natal charts and reports within seconds.  Websites, apps, social media, and books, allow millions of people to engage with it either casually or more seriously.

Many more systems of astrology have been developed in the past 100 years or so, including Modern Astrology, Evolutionary Astrology, Esoteric Astrology, Uranian Astrology, and Financial Astrology, among others. While it is no longer considered a science, astrology continues to influence culture, art, and daily life.